Class: Adamantanes
VA Class: AM800
Chemical Name: α-Methyl tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]decane-1-methanamine hydrochloride
Molecular Formula: C12H21N•HCl
CAS Number: 1501-84-4
Brands: Flumadine
Introduction
Antiviral; adamantane derivative.1 3 10 15 16 40 42
Uses for Rimantadine Hydrochloride
Treatment of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Symptomatic treatment of uncomplicated illness caused by susceptible influenza A virus.1 2 3 5 11 15 16 33 37 61
Consider viral surveillance data available from local and state health departments and the CDC when selecting an antiviral for treatment of seasonal influenza.116 137 149 Strains of circulating influenza viruses and the antiviral susceptibility of these strains constantly evolve,116 144 and emergence of rimantadine-resistant influenza virus may decrease effectiveness of the drug.1
Beginning in the 2005–2006 influenza season, most influenza A (H3N2) strains circulating in the US were resistant to adamantanes (amantadine, rimantadine),29 77 116 121 and resistance to the drugs among seasonal influenza A (H3N2) isolates has remained high during subsequent influenza seasons.29 117 162 In addition, the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus was resistant to amantadine and rimantadine,52 117 151 162 and this strain is expected to continue to circulate during the 2010–2011 influenza season.144 162
Amantadine and rimantadine have little or no activity against influenza B.1 11 15 16 35 42
CDC recommends that adamantanes (amantadine, rimantadine) not be used for the treatment of influenza in the US until susceptibility to these antiviral agents has been reestablished in circulating influenza A viruses.77
CDC issues recommendations concerning the use of antiviral agents for the treatment of influenza, and these recommendations are updated as needed during each influenza season.144 Information regarding influenza surveillance and updated recommendations for treatment of seasonal influenza are available from CDC at .
Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Prophylaxis of influenza infection caused by susceptible influenza A when timely vaccination with influenza virus vaccine is not feasible, contraindicated, or not available.1 3 4 7 8 16 47
Annual vaccination with seasonal influenza virus vaccine, as recommended by the US Public Health Service Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), is the primary means of preventing seasonal influenza and its severe complications.1 29 116 144 149 161 Prophylaxis with an appropriate antiviral active against circulating influenza strains is considered an adjunct to vaccination for control and prevention of influenza in certain individuals.1 29 116 144 149 161
Consider viral surveillance data available from local and state health departments and the CDC when selecting an antiviral for the prophylaxis of influenza.116 137 149 The most appropriate antiviral for prevention of influenza is selected based on information regarding the likelihood that the influenza strain is susceptible and the known adverse effects of the drug.137 144 Strains of circulating influenza viruses and the antiviral susceptibility of these strains constantly evolve,137 144 and emergence of rimantadine-resistant influenza virus may decrease effectiveness of the drug.1
CDC recommends that adamantanes (amantadine, rimantadine) not be used for prevention of influenza in the US until susceptibility to these antiviral agents has been reestablished in circulating influenza A viruses.77
CDC issues recommendations concerning the use of antiviral agents for prophylaxis of influenza, and these recommendations are updated as needed during each influenza season.144 Information regarding influenza surveillance and updated recommendations for prevention of seasonal influenza are available from CDC at .
Avian Influenza A Virus Infections
May be used for treatment or prophylaxis of avian influenza A virus infections† in certain situations.94 104
The WHO recommends use of a neuraminidase inhibitor (i.e., oseltamivir) for the treatment of avian influenza A infections.94 104
Concomitant use of a neuraminidase inhibitor (i.e., oseltamivir) and an adamantane (amantadine, rimantadine) can be considered in a patient with pneumonic disease or clinical progression if local surveillance data indicate the H5N1 virus is known or likely to be susceptible to an adamantane.104
Should not be used alone for treatment of avian influenza A if a neuraminidase inhibitor is available.94 104
Rimantadine Hydrochloride Dosage and Administration
Administration
Oral Administration
Administer orally without regard to meals.1 14
Dosages <150 mg daily can be given as a single dose; dosages of 200 mg daily can be given in 2 divided doses.1 23 Dividing dosages >100 mg daily into 2 doses may minimize adverse effects.63
Dosage
Available as rimantadine hydrochloride; dosage expressed in terms of rimantadine hydrochloride.1
Pediatric Patients
Treatment of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Oral
Children ≥13 years of age†: 100 mg twice daily.29
Initiate rimantadine treatment as soon as possible, preferably within 24–48 hours after onset of symptoms and continue for up to 5 days or 24–48 hours after symptoms disappear.1
Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Oral
Children 1–9 years of age: 5 mg/kg (maximum 150 mg) once daily.1 29
Children ≥10 years of age: 100 mg twice daily.1 AAP recommends 5 mg/kg daily in 2 divided doses in those weighing <40 kg or 100 mg twice daily in those weighing ≥40 kg.29
Individualize duration of prophylaxis. For maximum effectiveness, must be taken every day during influenza activity in the community. Manufacturer states that safety and efficacy for >6 weeks not established.1
Adults
Treatment of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Oral
100 mg twice daily.1 28
Initiate rimantadine treatment as soon as possible, preferably within 24–48 hours after onset of symptoms and continue for up to 5 days or 24–48 hours after symptoms disappear.1
Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Oral
100 mg twice daily.1 28
Duration of antiviral prophylaxis should be individualized. For maximum effectiveness, the antiviral agent must be taken every day during influenza activity in the community. Manufacturer states that safety and efficacy for >6 weeks not established.1
For prophylaxis in conjunction with influenza virus vaccine (see Specific Drugs under Interactions), rimantadine should be administered for 2 weeks after vaccine administration.1
Prescribing Limits
Pediatric Patients
Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
Oral
Children 1–9 years of age: Maximum 150 mg daily.1 29
Special Populations
Hepatic Impairment
Treatment or Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
100 mg daily in patients with severe hepatic impairment.1
Renal Impairment
Treatment or Prevention of Seasonal Influenza A Virus Infections
100 mg daily in patients with severe renal impairment (Clcr ≤10 mL/minute).1 Further dosage adjustments may be needed.1
Geriatric Patients
≥65 years of age: 100 mg daily recommended by the manufacturer;1 ACIP and others recommend 100 mg daily in those who experienced adverse effects with the usual adult dosage.28
Geriatric individuals residing in nursing homes: 100 mg daily.1
Cautions for Rimantadine Hydrochloride
Contraindications
Known hypersensitivity to adamantane derivatives (rimantadine, amantadine) or any ingredient in the formulation.1
Warnings/Precautions
Warnings
CNS Effects
Patients with a history of seizure disorders should be observed closely for possible increased seizure activity.1 Discontinue if seizures occur.1
General Precautions
Other Viral or Bacterial Infections
Not effective for treatment or prophylaxis of viral respiratory tract illnesses other than those due to influenza A virus.1
Serious bacterial infections may present with influenza-like symptoms, coexist with influenza, or occur during influenza.25 73
Prescribing and Dispensing Errors.
Ensure accuracy of prescription; similar spelling of Flumadine (rimantadine) and flutamide may result in errors.1
Specific Populations
Pregnancy
Category C.1
Lactation
Distributed into milk in rats; adverse effects noted in the offspring of rats given the drug during the perinatal and postnatal period.1 Use not recommended.1
Pediatric Use
Used in children ≥1 year of age for prophylaxis of influenza A;1 has not been evaluated for prophylaxis in infants <1 year of age.1
Safety and efficacy for treatment of influenza A virus infection not established in children.1 Has been used for the treatment of influenza A infection in children 1–15 years of age; safety and efficacy similar to that in adults.37 59 61
Geriatric Use
Frequency and severity of adverse effects, including adverse CNS effects, in individuals >65 years of age receiving rimantadine hydrochloride 100 mg twice daily higher than in younger adults and children.1 47
Consider age-related decreases in renal function when selecting dosage.1 (See Geriatric Patients under Dosage and Administration.)
Hepatic Impairment
Caution in patients with hepatic impairment.1 (See Hepatic Impairment under Dosage and Administration.)
Renal Impairment
Caution in patients with renal impairment.1 (See Renal Impairment under Dosage and Administration.)
Common Adverse Effects
Nausea,1 3 9 37 47 53 insomnia,1 3 40 47 53 dizziness.1 3 19 25 40 47 53
Interactions for Rimantadine Hydrochloride
Specific Drugs
Drug | Interaction | Comments |
|---|---|---|
Acetaminophen | Slightly decreased rimantadine peak plasma concentrations and AUC1 | |
Aspirin | Slightly decreased rimantadine peak plasma concentrations and AUC1 | |
Cimetidine | Decreased rimantadine clearance with single dose of cimetidine1 | Effect of long-term administration not evaluated1 |
Influenza virus vaccines | Influenza virus vaccine inactivated: Rimantadine does not interfere with the antibody response to the vaccine1 Influenza virus vaccine live intranasal: Potential interference with antibody response to the live vaccine; no specific studies1 144 | Influenza virus vaccine inactivated: May be used concomitantly with or at any interval before or after rimantadine1 144 Influenza virus vaccine live intranasal: Do not administer the live intranasal vaccine until at least 48 hours after rimantadine is discontinued; do not administer rimantadine until at least 2 weeks after administration of the live intranasal vaccine;1 144 repeat vaccination if influenza antiviral is given 2 days before to 14 days after the vaccine144 |
Rimantadine Hydrochloride Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Bioavailability
Well absorbed from GI tract; peak plasma concentrations usually attained within 6 hours.1 14 40 49 51
Commercially available tablets and oral solution are bioequivalent.1 56 60
Food
Food does not appear to affect absorption.1 14
Distribution
Extent
Not fully characterized.1 Distributed into nasal secretions.40 51 54
Crosses the placenta in rats; distributed into milk in rats.1 Not known whether rimantadine crosses the placenta or is distributed into human milk.1
Plasma Protein Binding
40%.1 40
Elimination
Metabolism
Extensively metabolized in the liver.1 40 55
Elimination Route
Principally excreted in urine (74%) as metabolites and unchanged drug (25%).1 40 55
Not removed by hemodialysis.1
Half-life
25–38 hours in adults and children.1 40 49 51 54 60
Special Populations
No change in pharmacokinetics in patients with chronic liver disease (mainly stabilized cirrhosis).1 Clearance reduced and half-life increased twofold in patients with severe hepatic impairment.1
In patients with renal impairment, half-life prolonged and clearance decreased.1 20
Stability
Storage
Oral
Tablets
15–30°C.1
Oral Solution
15–30°C.1
ActionsActions and Spectrum
Adamantane-derivative (a symmetric tricyclic amine);1 3 10 15 16 40 42 structurally related to amantadine.2 3 4 5 8 10 15 16 17 40 42
Has antiviral activity against some strains of influenza A, including some strains of H1N1, H2N2, and H3N2.1 4 5 11 12 16 42 45
Has little or no activity against influenza B.1 11 15 16 35 42
Worldwide incidence of influenza A viruses resistant to adamantanes (amantadine, rimantadine) has increased over the last several years.84 92 121
Beginning in the 2005–2006 influenza season, most influenza A (H3N2) strains circulating in the US were resistant to amantadine and rimantadine.77 121 Resistance to amantadine and rimantadine among seasonal influenza A (H3N2) isolates has remained high during subsequent influenza seasons.29 93 117 162
Although amantadine and rimantadine were active against most seasonal influenza A (H1N1) viruses circulating in the US during the 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 influenza seasons,133 139 162 the 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus is resistant to amantadine and rimantadine.52 117 151 162
Some strains of avian influenza A (H5N1) have been susceptible to rimantadine;38 39 other strains, including influenza A (H5N1) isolated from patients in Asia during 2004 and 2005, have been resistant.76
Rimantadine inhibits viral replication by interfering with the influenza A virus M2 protein, an integral membrane protein.1 11 15 16 41 42 46
Strains of influenza A virus with reduced susceptibility to rimantadine have been produced in vitro and have emerged during therapy with the drug.1 6 8 9 10 11 12 24 25 41 42 43 46
Rimantadine-resistant influenza A viruses also are resistant to amantadine.9 10 16 25 41 42 43 46 48
Advice to Patients
Importance of not getting up suddenly from a sitting or lying position; notify clinician if dizziness or lightheadedness occur.1
Importance of informing clinician of existing or contemplated concomitant therapy, including prescription and OTC drugs and dietary or herbal products, as well as any concomitant illnesses.1
Importance of women informing clinicians if they are or plan to become pregnant or plan to breast-feed.1
Importance of advising patients of other important precautionary information.1 (See Cautions.)
Preparations
Excipients in commercially available drug preparations may have clinically important effects in some individuals; consult specific product labeling for details.
* available from one or more manufacturer, distributor, and/or repackager by generic (nonproprietary) name
Routes | Dosage Forms | Strengths | Brand Names | Manufacturer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral | Solution | 50 mg/5 mL | Flumadine Syrup | Forest |
Tablets, film-coated | 100 mg* | Flumadine | Forest | |
Rimantadine Hydrochloride Tablets |
Comparative Pricing
This pricing information is subject to change at the sole discretion of DS Pharmacy. This pricing information was updated 03/2011. Actual costs to patients will vary depending on the use of specific retail or mail-order locations and health insurance copays.
Flumadine 100MG Tablets (CARACO): 14/$43.99 or 42/$109.97
Disclaimer
This report on medications is for your information only, and is not considered individual patient advice. Because of the changing nature of drug information, please consult your physician or pharmacist about specific clinical use.
The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com represent that the information provided hereunder was formulated with a reasonable standard of care, and in conformity with professional standards in the field. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com make no representations or warranties, express or implied, including, but not limited to, any implied warranty of merchantability and/or fitness for a particular purpose, with respect to such information and specifically disclaims all such warranties. Users are advised that decisions regarding drug therapy are complex medical decisions requiring the independent, informed decision of an appropriate health care professional, and the information is provided for informational purposes only. The entire monograph for a drug should be reviewed for a thorough understanding of the drug's actions, uses and side effects. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com do not endorse or recommend the use of any drug. The information is not a substitute for medical care.
AHFS Drug Information. © Copyright, 1959-2011, Selected Revisions December 2010. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc., 7272 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20814.
† Use is not currently included in the labeling approved by the US Food and Drug Administration.
References
1. Forest Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Flumadine (rimantadine hydrochloride) tablets and syrup prescribing information. St Louis, MO: 2007 Apr.
2. Van Voris LP, Betts RF, Hayden FG et al. Successful treatment of naturally occurring influenza A/USSR/77 H1N1. JAMA. 1981; 245:1128-31. [IDIS 128645] [PubMed 7007668]
3. Dolin R, Reichman RC, Madore HP et al. A controlled trial of amantadine and rimantadine in the prophylaxis of influenza A infection. N Engl J Med. 1982; 307:580-4. [IDIS 155775] [PubMed 7050702]
4. Clover RD, Crawford SA, Abell TD et al. Effectiveness of rimantadine prophylaxis of children within families. Am J Dis Child. 1986; 140:706-9. [IDIS 217594] [PubMed 3521258]
5. Hayden FG, Monto AS. Oral rimantadine hydrochloride therapy of influenza A virus H3N2 subtype infection in adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1986; 29:339-41. [IDIS 212795] [PubMed 3521480]
6. Hayden FG, Sperber SJ, Belshe RB et al. Recovery of drug-resistant influenza A virus during therapeutic use of rimantadine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991; 35:1741-7. [IDIS 287974] [PubMed 1952841]
7. Crawford SA, Clover RD, Abell TD et al. Rimantadine prophylaxis in children: a follow-up study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1988; 7:379-83. [PubMed 3292997]
8. Monto AS, Arden NH. Implications of viral resistance to amantadine in control of influenza A. Clin Infect Dis. 1992; 15:362-7. [IDIS 300188] [PubMed 1520770]
9. Hayden FG, Belshe RB, Clover RD et al. Emergence and apparent transmission of rimantadine-resistant influenza A virus in families. N Engl J Med. 1989; 321:1696-702. [IDIS 261720] [PubMed 2687687]
10. Belshe RB, Burk B, Newman F et al. Resistance of influenza A virus to amantadine and rimantadine: results of one decade of surveillance. J Infect Dis. 1989; 159:430-5. [IDIS 252885] [PubMed 2915166]
11. Douglas RG Jr. Prophylaxis and treatment of influenza. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322:443-50. [IDIS 263117] [PubMed 2405270]
12. Valette M, Allard JP, Aymard M et al. Susceptibilities to rimantadine of influenza A/H1N1 and A/H3N2 viruses isolated during the epidemics of 1988 to 1989 and 1989 to 1990. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:2239-40. [IDIS 320620] [PubMed 8257151]
14. Wills RJ, Rodriguez LC, Choma N et al. Influence of a meal on the bioavailability of rimantadine • HCl. J Clin Pharmacol. 1987; 27:821-3. [IDIS 235710] [PubMed 3429689]
15. Hayden FG. Antiviral agents: other antiviral agents. In: Hardman JG, Goodman LS, Gillman A et al, eds. Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1996:1209-11.
16. Anon. Amantadine (Symmetrel) and rimantadine (Flumadine). In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995:417-9.
17. Hayden FG, Gwaltney JM Jr, Van de Castle RL et al. Comparative toxicity of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride in healthy adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1981; 19:226-33. [IDIS 134392] [PubMed 7347558]
18. Hayden FG, Hoffman HE, Spyker DA. Differences in side effects of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride relate to differences in pharmacokinetics. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1983; 23:458-64. [IDIS 167347] [PubMed 6847173]
19. Millet VM, Dreisbach M, Bryson YJ. Double-blind controlled study of central nervous system side effects of amantadine, rimantadine, and chlorpheniramine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1982; 21:1-4. [IDIS 143682] [PubMed 7044294]
20. Capparelli EV, Stevens RC, Chow MSS et al. Rimantadine pharmacokinetics in healthy subjects and patients with end-stage renal failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1988; 43:536-41. [IDIS 242095] [PubMed 3365917]
22. Wills RJ, Belshe R, Tomlinsin D et al. Pharmacokinetics of rimantadine hydrochloride in patients with chronic liver disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1987; 42:449-54. [IDIS 234784] [PubMed 3665342]
23. Forest Pharmaceuticals, New York NY: Personal communication.
24. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1997; 46(RR-1):40-43,64.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(RR-8):1-40.
28. American College of Physicians Task Force on Adult Immunization and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guide for adult immunization. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: American College of Physicians; 1994:20-23,26,30,36,90-97.
29. American Academy of Pediatrics. 2009 Red Book. Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 28th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2009.
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA: Personal communication on influenza virus vaccine.
33. Doyle WJ, Skoner DP, Alper CM et al. Effect of rimantadine treatment on clinical manifestations and otologic complications in adults experimentally infected with influenza A (H1N1) virus. J Infect Dis. 1998; 177:1260-5. [IDIS 405278] [PubMed 9593010]
34. Nelson KE, Clements ML, Miotti P et al. The influence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on antibody responses to influenza vaccines. Ann Intern Med. 1988; 109:383-8.
35. Hayden FG, Cote KM, Douglas RG Jr. Plaque inhibition assay for drug susceptibility testing of influenza viruses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1980; 17:865-70. [IDIS 210500] [PubMed 7396473]
36. Anon. Amantadine: does it have a role in the prevention and treatment of influenza? A National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference. Ann Intern Med. 1980; 92:256-8. [PubMed 7352734]
37. Hall CB, Dolin R, Gala CL et al. Children with influenza A infection: treatment with rimantadine. Pediatrics. 1987; 80:275-82. [IDIS 233097] [PubMed 3302925]
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Isolation of avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses from humans—Hong Kong, May–December 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997; 46:1204-7. [PubMed 9414153]
39. Hayden FG. Antivirals for pandemic influenza. J Infect Dis. 1997; 176(Suppl 1):S56-61.
40. Wintermeyer SM, Nahata MC. Rimantadine: a clinical perspective. Ann Pharmacother. 1995; 29:299-310. [IDIS 344895] [PubMed 7606077]
41. Kimberlin DW, Whitley RJ. Antiviral resistance: mechanisms, clinical significance, and future implications. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996; 37:403-21. [IDIS 365650] [PubMed 9182098]
42. Anon. Amantadine and rimantadine. In: Kucers A, Crowe SM, Grayson ML et al, eds. The use of antibiotics: a clinical review of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral drugs. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:1834-54.
43. Belshe RB, Hay AJ. Drug resistance and mechanisms of action on influenza A viruses. J Respir Dis. 1989; 10(Suppl):S52-61.
44. Englund JA, Champlin RE, Wyde PR et al. Common emergence of amantadine- and rimantadine-resistant influenza A viruses in symptomatic immunocompromised adults. Clin Infect Dis. 1998; 26:1418-24. [IDIS 409165] [PubMed 9636873]
45. Tilley JW, Kramer MJ. Aminoadamantane derivatives. Prog Med Chem. 1981; 18:1-44. [PubMed 7045980]
46. Hay AJ. The action of adamantanamines against influenza A viruses: inhibition of the M2 ion channel protein. Semin Virol. 1992; 3:21-30.
47. Monto AS, Ohmit SE, Hornbuckle K et al. Safety and efficacy of long-term use of rimantadine for prophylaxis of type A influenza in nursing homes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995; 39:2224-8. [IDIS 356007] [PubMed 8619572]
48. Houck P, Hemphill M, LaCroix S et al. Amantadine-resistant influenza A in nursing homes: identification of a resistant virus prior to drug use. Arch Intern Med. 1995; 155:533-7. [IDIS 344097] [PubMed 7864709]
49. Wills RJ, Farolino DA, Choma N et al. Rimantadine pharmacokinetics after single and multiple doses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987; 31:826-8. [IDIS 229471] [PubMed 3606083]
50. Nahata MC, Brady MT. Serum concentrations and safety of rimantadine in paediatric patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1986; 30:719-22. [IDIS 221616] [PubMed 3770065]
51. Hayden FG, Minocha A, Spyker DA et al. Comparative single-dose pharmacokinetics of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride in young and elderly adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1985; 28:216-21. [IDIS 204284] [PubMed 3834831]
52. Hayden FG, Minocha A, Spyker DA et al. Comparative single-dose pharmacokinetics of amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride in young and elderly adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1985; 28:216-21. [IDIS 204284] [PubMed 3834831]
53. Patriarca PA, Kater NA, Kendal AP et al. Safety of prolonged administration of rimantadine hydrochloride in the prophylaxis of influenza A virus infections in nursing homes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1984; 26:101-3. [IDIS 187634] [PubMed 6476812]
54. Tominack RL, Wills RJ, Gustavson LE et al. Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of rimantadine in elderly adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988; 32:1813-9. [IDIS 249129] [PubMed 3245694]
55. Rubio FR, Fukuda EK, Garland WA. Urinary metabolites of rimantadine in humans. Drug Metab Dispos. 1988; 16:773-7. [IDIS 246249] [PubMed 2906605]
56. Wills RJ, Choma N, Buonpane G et al. Relative bioavailability of rimantadine HCl tablet and syrup formulations in healthy subjects. J Pharm Sci. 1987; 76:886-8. [IDIS 236595] [PubMed 3440931]
57. Hay AJ, Zambon MC, Wolstenholme AJ et al. Molecular basis of resistance of influenza A viruses to amantadine. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1986; 18(Suppl B):19-29. [PubMed 3793659]
58. Clover RD, Waner JL, Becker L et al. Effect of rimantadine on the immune response to influenza A infections. J Med Virol. 1991; 34:68-73. [PubMed 1885945]
59. Thompson J, Fleet W, Lawrence E et al. A comparison of acetaminophen and rimantadine in the treatment of influenza A infection in children. J Med Virol. 1987; 21:249-55. [PubMed 3549971]
60. Anderson EL, Van Voris LP, Bartram J et al. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of rimantadine in young adults and children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987; 31:1140- 2. [IDIS 232503] [PubMed 3662473]
61. Evans KD, Kline MW. Prolonged influenza A infection responsive to rimantadine therapy in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected child. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995; 14:332-4. [IDIS 345882] [PubMed 7603824]
62. Holazo AA, Choma N, Brown SY et al. Effect of cimetidine on the disposition of rimantadine in healthy subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989; 33:820-3. [IDIS 255712] [PubMed 2764530]
63. Reviewers’ comments (personal observations).
64. Berkowitz CD. Treatment of acute amantadine toxicity with physostigmine. J Pediatr. 1979; 95:144-5. [PubMed 479999]
65. Forest, St. Louis, MO: Personal communication.
66. Glaxo Wellcome Inc. Relenza (zanamivir) for inhalation product information. Research Triangle Center, NC; 1999.
67. Houck P, Hemphill M, LaCroix S et al. Amantadine-resistant influenza A in nursing homes: identification of a resistant virus prior to drug use. Arch Intern Med. 1995; 155:533-7. [IDIS 344097] [PubMed 7864709]
68. Hayden FG, Sperber SJ, Belshe RB et al. Recovery of drug-resistant influenza A virus during therapeutic use of rimantadine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1991; 35:1741-7. [IDIS 287974] [PubMed 1952841]
69. Balfour HH. Antiviral drugs. N Engl J Med. 1999; 340:1255-68. [IDIS 423356] [PubMed 10210711]
70. Calfee DP, Hayden FG. New approaches to influenza chemotherapy: neuraminidase inhibitors. Drugs. 1998; 56:537-53. [PubMed 9806102]
71. Hayden FG, Treanor JJ, Fritz RS et al. Use of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in experimental human influenza: randomized controlled trials for prevention and treatment. JAMA. 1999; 282:1240-6. [IDIS 434353] [PubMed 10517426]
73. Lumpkin MM. Food and Drug Administration. Dear healthcare provider letter regarding safe and appropriate use of influenza drugs. Rockville, MD; 2000 Jan 12. From FDA website.
74. Monto AS, Robinson DP, Herlocher ML et al. Zanamivir in the prevention of influenza among healthy adults: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999; 282:31-5. [IDIS 427990] [PubMed 10404908]
75. Hayden FG, Treanor JJ, Fritz RS et al. Use of the oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in experimental human influenza: randomized controlled trials for prevention and treatment. JAMA. 1999; 282:1240-6. [IDIS 434353] [PubMed 10517426]
76. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: influenza activity—United States and worldwide, 2003-2004 season, and composition of the 2004-05 influenza vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004; 53:547-52. [PubMed 15229411]
77. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Health information for international travel, 2010. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2010. Updates available from CDC website.
78. Hayden FG. Antivirals for pandemic influenza. J Infect Dis. 1997; 176(Suppl 1):S56-61.
79. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on the use of vaccines and antivirals during influenza pandemics. Geneva; WHO. 2004.
81. Nuzzo J. Federal advisory groups recommend priorities for vaccination and antivirals during a pandemic. CBN Weekly Bulletin. 2005 Aug 2.
83. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Information about avian influenza (bird flu) and avian influenza A (H5N1) virus. Atlanta, GA; CDC. From CDC website. Accessed 3 Oct 2010.
84. Bright RA, Medina MJ, Xu X et al. Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: a cause for concern. Lancet. 2005; 366:1175-81. [IDIS 541036] [PubMed 16198766]
85. Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M et al. Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Lancet. 2004; 363:587-93. [PubMed 14987882]
87. World Health Organization. Avian influenza—new areas with infection in birds—update 34. Geneva; WHO. From the WHO web site. Accessed 2005 Oct 16.
92. Saito R, Li D, Suzuki H. Amantadine-resistant influenza A (H3N2) virus in Japan, 2005–2006. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356:312-3. Letter. [PubMed 17229966]
93. . Recommended composition of influenza virus vaccines for use in the 2007-2008 influenza season. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2007; 82:69-74. [PubMed 17333570]
94. World Health Organization. WHO rapid advice guidelines on pharmacological management of humans infected with avian influenza A (H5N1) virus. World Health Organization 2006. From WHO website. Accesssed 3 Oct 2010.
104. World Health Organization. WHO clinical management of human infection with influenza A (H5N1) virus. Geneva; WHO. Updated advice 15 August 2007. From WHO website. Accessed 3 Oct 2010.
116. Harper SA, Bradley JS, Englund JA et al. Seasonal influenza in adults and children--diagnosis, treatment, chemoprophylaxis, and institutional outbreak management: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009; 48:1003-32. [PubMed 19281331]
117. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: influenza activity - United States, August 30, 2009-March 27, 2010, and composition of the 2010-11 influenza vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010; 59:423-30. [PubMed 20395936]
121. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. High level of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses and interim guidelines for use of antiviral agents—United States, 2005–06 influenza season. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006; 55:44-6. [PubMed 16424859]
133. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Health Advisory: CDC issues interim recommendations for the use of influenza antiviral medications in the setting of oseltamivir resistance among circulating influenza A (H1N1) viruses, 2008-2009 season. 19 Dec 2008. From CDC website.
136. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Swine influenza A (H1N1) infections–California and Texas, April 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009; 58:435-7.
137. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated interim recommendations for use of antiviral medications in the treatment and prevention if influenza for the 2009-2010 season. 2009 Sep 8. From CDC website.
139. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: influenza activity--United States, September 28, 2008-April 4, 2009, and composition of the 2009-10 influenza vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009; 58:369-74. [PubMed 19373198]
140. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in a school–New York City, April 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009; 58 (Dispatch):1-3. [PubMed 19145219]
141. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus infection–Mexico, March-April 2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009; 58 (Dispatch):1-3. [PubMed 19145219]
142. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: Swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus–United States and other countries, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009; 58:425.
144. Fiore AE, Uyeki TM, Broder K et al. Prevention and control of influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010; 59(RR-8):1-62.
147. Novel Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Investigation Team. Emergence of a novel swine-o
No comments:
Post a Comment